Battle of Old Fort Wayne

The 1956 United States presidential election was the 43rd quadrennial presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 6, 1956. President Dwight D. Eisenhower successfully ran for reelection against Adlai Stevenson II, the former Illinois governor whom he had defeated four years earlier. This election saw the sixth rematch in American presidential history, the last until 2024, and the second where the winner was the same both times (the first being William McKinley's two victories over William Jennings Bryan in 1896 and 1900). This was the last election before the term limits established by the 22nd Amendment (which would apply to Eisenhower) came into effect, Eisenhower being the first President elected twice to the office following the Amendment's ratification.

Eisenhower, who had first become famous for his military leadership in World War II, remained widely popular. A heart attack in 1955 provoked speculation that he would not seek a second term, but his health recovered and he faced no opposition at the 1956 Republican National Convention. Stevenson remained popular with a core of liberal Democrats, but held no office and had no real base. He defeated New York Governor W. Averell Harriman and several other candidates on the first presidential ballot of the 1956 Democratic National Convention. Stevenson called for a significant increase in government spending on social programs and a decrease in military spending.

With the end of the Korean War and a strong economy, few doubted that the charismatic Eisenhower would be reelected. Supporters of the president focused on his "personal qualities ... his sincerity, his integrity and sense of duty, his virtue as a family man, his religious devotion, and his sheer likeableness,"[4] rather than on his leadership record. The weeks before the election saw two major international crises in the Middle East and Eastern Europe, and Eisenhower's handling of the crises boosted his popularity.

Eisenhower slightly improved on his 1952 majorities in both the popular and electoral vote. He increased his 1952 gains among Democrats, especially Northern and Midwestern white ethnic groups and city-dwelling and suburban White Southerners.[5] Surprisingly, Eisenhower narrowly lost Missouri, a bellwether state for most of the 20th century, and which had voted for him in 1952; at the same time he carried Kentucky, Louisiana, and West Virginia, which had voted against him in the previous election. This was the last presidential election before the admissions of Alaska and Hawaii in 1959, as well as the final presidential election in which a major party candidate was born in the 19th century.

Republican Party

Republican Party (United States)
Republican Party (United States)
1956 Republican Party ticket
Dwight D. Eisenhower Richard Nixon
for President for Vice President
34th
President of the United States
(1953–1961)
36th
Vice President of the United States
(1953–1961)
Campaign

Republican candidates

Early in 1956, there was speculation that President Eisenhower would not run for a second term because of concerns about his health. In 1955, Eisenhower had suffered a serious heart attack. However, he soon recovered and decided to run for a second term. (In June 1956 he also underwent surgery for ileitis) Given Eisenhower's enormous popularity, he was renominated with no opposition at the 1956 Republican National Convention in San Francisco.

According to Steven Ambrose, Nixon was anguished that Eisenhower never liked him and repeatedly delayed saying Nixon should be renominated. Ambrose also stated that Eisenhower favored Robert B. Anderson, a former Democrat who had served as United States Secretary of the Navy and United States Deputy Secretary of Defense, but Anderson declined to be considered. With Eisenhower worried about his health, he decided that Nixon had his shortcomings, but was better prepared to assume the presidency than any possible alternative. In Ambrose's view, "In itself, that was the highest possible tribute he could pay Nixon.”[6] Harold Stassen was the only Republican to publicly oppose Nixon's re-nomination for vice-president, and Nixon remained highly popular among the Republican rank-and-file voters. Nixon had worked hard to reshape the vice-presidency. It became his platform to campaign for Republican state and local candidates across the country, and these candidates came to his defense. In the spring of 1956, Eisenhower publicly announced that Nixon would again be his running mate, and Stassen was forced to second Nixon's nomination at the Republican Convention. Unlike 1952, conservative Republicans (who had supported Robert A. Taft against Eisenhower in 1952) did not attempt to shape the platform. At the convention, the Nebraskan delegate Terry McGovern Carpenter voted for a fictitious "Joe Smith" for vice-president to prevent a unanimous vote.[7]

Democratic Party

Democratic Party (United States)
Democratic Party (United States)
1956 Democratic Party ticket
Adlai Stevenson Estes Kefauver
for President for Vice President
31st
Governor of Illinois
(1949–1953)
U.S. Senator from Tennessee
(1949–1963)
Campaign

Democratic candidates

Primaries

Results of the 1956 Democratic Presidential Primaries.

Adlai Stevenson, the Democratic Party's 1952 nominee, fought a tight primary battle with populist Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver for the 1956 nomination. Kefauver won the New Hampshire primary unopposed (though Stevenson won 15% on write-ins). After Kefauver upset Stevenson in the Minnesota primary, Stevenson, realizing that he was in trouble, agreed to debate Kefauver in Florida. Stevenson and Kefauver held the first televised presidential debate on May 21, 1956, before the Florida primary.[8] Stevenson carried Florida by a 52–48% margin. By the time of the California primary in June 1956, Kefauver's campaign had run low on money and could not compete for publicity and advertising with the well-funded Stevenson. Stevenson won the California primary by a 63–37% margin, and Kefauver soon withdrew from the race.

Popular vote results

Source[9]

Democratic National Convention

At the 1956 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, New York Governor W. Averell Harriman, who was backed by former President Harry S. Truman, challenged Stevenson for the nomination. However, Stevenson's delegate lead was much too large for Harriman to overcome, and Stevenson won on the first ballot.

The roll call, as reported in Richard C. Bain and Judith H. Parris, Convention Decisions and Voting Records, pp. 294–298:

Presidential balloting, DNC 1956
Contender Vote
Adlai Stevenson 905.5
W. Averell Harriman 210
Lyndon B. Johnson 80
Stuart Symington 45.5
Happy Chandler 36.5
James C. Davis 33
John S. Battle 32.5
George Bell Timmerman, Jr. 23.5
Frank Lausche 5.5

Vice-presidential nomination

Candidate Current position

Estes Kefauver
U.S. Senator from Tennessee

John F. Kennedy
U.S. Senator from Massachusetts

Albert Gore Sr.
U.S. Senator from Tennessee

Robert F. Wagner Jr.
Mayor of New York City

Hubert Humphrey
U.S. Senator from Minnesota

The highlight of the 1956 Democratic Convention came when Stevenson, to create excitement for the ticket, made the surprise announcement that the convention's delegates would choose his running mate. This set off a desperate scramble among several candidates to win the nomination. Potential vice-presidential candidates had only one hectic day to campaign among the delegates before the voting began. The two leading contenders were Senator Kefauver, who retained the support of his primary delegates, and Senator John F. Kennedy from Massachusetts, who was not well known at the time. Although Stevenson privately preferred Senator Kennedy to be his running mate, he did not attempt to influence the balloting for Kennedy in any way. Kennedy surprised the experts by surging into the lead on the second ballot; at one point, he was only 15 votes shy of winning. However, a number of states then left their "favorite son" candidates and switched to Kefauver, giving him the victory. Kennedy then gave a gracious concession speech. The defeat was a boost for Kennedy's long-term presidential chances: as a serious contender, he gained favorable national publicity, yet by losing to Kefauver he avoided blame for Stevenson's loss to Eisenhower in November. The vote totals in the vice-presidential balloting are recorded in the following table, which also comes from Bain & Parris.

Vice-Presidential balloting, DNC 1956
Ballot 1 2 before shifts 2 after shifts
Estes Kefauver 466.5 551.5 755.5
John F. Kennedy 294.5 618 589
Albert Gore Sr. 178 110.5 13.5
Robert F. Wagner Jr. 162.5 9.5 6
Hubert Humphrey 134 74.5 2
Luther H. Hodges 40 0.5 0
P.T. Maner 33 0 0
LeRoy Collins 29 0 0
Clinton Presba Anderson 16 0 0
Frank G. Clement 14 0 0
Pat Brown 1 0 0
Lyndon B. Johnson 1 0 0
Stuart Symington 1 0 0

General election

Campaign

Stevenson campaigned hard against Eisenhower, with television ads for the first time being the dominant medium for both sides. Eisenhower's 1952 election victory had been due in large part to winning the female vote; hence, during this campaign there was a plethora of "housewife"-focused ads. Some commentators at the time also argued that television's new prominence was a major factor in Eisenhower's decision to run for a second term at the age of 66, considering his weak health after the heart attack in 1955. Television allowed Eisenhower to reach people across the country without enduring the strain of repeated coast-to-coast travel, making a national campaign more feasible.[10]

Results by county explicitly indicating the percentage for the winning candidate. Shades of red are for Eisenhower (Republican), shades of blue are for Stevenson (Democratic), and shades of green are for Unpledged Electors/Andrews (Independent/States' Rights).
Results by congressional districts explicitly indicating the percentage for the winning candidate. Shades of red are for Eisenhower (Republican), shades of blue are for Stevenson (Democratic), and shades of green are for Unpledged Electors/Andrews (Independent/States' Rights).

Stevenson proposed significant increases in government spending for social programs and treaties with the Soviet Union to lower military spending and end nuclear testing on both sides. He also proposed to end the military draft and switch to an "all-volunteer" military. Eisenhower publicly opposed these ideas, even though in private he was working on a proposal to ban atmospheric nuclear testing. Eisenhower had retained the enormous personal and political popularity he had earned during World War II, and he maintained a comfortable lead in the polls throughout the campaign.

Eisenhower was also helped by his handling of two developing foreign-policy crises that occurred in the weeks before the election. In the Soviet-occupied People's Republic of Hungary, many citizens had risen in revolt in the Revolution of 1956 against Soviet domination, but the Soviets responded by invading the country on October 26. Three days later, a combined force of Israeli, British, and French troops invaded Egypt to topple Gamal Abdel Nasser and seize the recently nationalized Suez Canal. The resolution of the latter crisis rapidly moved to the United Nations,[11] and the Hungarian revolt was brutally crushed within a few days by re-deployed Soviet troops. Eisenhower condemned both actions, but was unable to help Hungary; he did, however, forcefully pressure the western forces to withdraw from Egypt.

While these two events led many Americans to rally in support of the president and swelled his expected margin of victory, the campaign was seen differently by some foreign governments.[12] The Eisenhower administration had also supported the Brown v. Board of Education ruling in 1954; this ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court ended legal segregation in public schools. Meanwhile, Stevenson voiced disapproval about federal court intervention in segregation, saying about Brown that "we don't need reforms or groping experiments."[13] This was an about-face from the national Democratic party platform's endorsement of civil rights in the 1948 campaign. Although Eisenhower "avoid[ed] a clear stand on the Brown decision" during the campaign,[14] in the contest with Stevenson, he won the support of nearly 40% of black voters; he was the last Republican presidential candidate to receive such a level of support from black voters.

Results

Eisenhower led all opinion polls by large margins throughout the campaign. On Election Day Eisenhower took over 57% of the popular vote and won 41 of the 48 states. Stevenson won only six Southern states and the border state of Missouri, becoming the first losing candidate since William Jennings Bryan in 1900 to carry Missouri. Eisenhower carried Louisiana, making him the first Republican presidential candidate to carry the state, or any state in the Deep South for that matter, since Rutherford Hayes had done so in 1876 during Reconstruction, Eisenhower was the first Republican to win two presidential terms since William McKinley in 1900.

Eisenhower, who had won in twenty-one of the thirty-nine cities with a population above 250,000 in the 1952 election, won in twenty-eight of those cities in the 1956 election. He had won six of the eight largest cities in the Southern United States in the 1952 election and won seven of them with Atlanta being the only one to remain Democratic.[15]

Of the 3,101 counties/independent cities making returns, Eisenhower won the most popular votes in 2,143 (69.11%) while Stevenson carried 924 (29.80%). Unpledged Electors prevailed in 32 counties (1.03%) while Andrews carried two counties (0.06%).

This election was the last in which Massachusetts voted Republican until 1980 and the last in which Connecticut, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Texas, and West Virginia did so until 1972. Conversely this was the last election in which Mississippi voted Democratic until 1976, and is also the last election until 1976 when Alabama gave a majority of its electoral votes to the Democratic candidate. As of 2023, this remains the last time that Missouri, Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama, South Carolina, and North Carolina would back a losing Democratic presidential candidate.

In 9 Southern states, a slate of third party options emerged as a protest to the civil rights movement. This was a continuation of the former Dixiecrat party from 1948. The states of Tennessee, Arkansas, Texas, and Virginia went a step farther, nominating Thomas Andrews for president, meanwhile in Kentucky they nominated senator Harry Byrd for president. The remaining states of Mississippi, South Carolina, Alabama, and Louisiana, left their electors as “Unpledged”.

Electoral results
Presidential candidate Party Home state Popular vote Electoral
vote
Running mate
Count Percentage Vice-presidential candidate Home state Electoral vote
Dwight D. Eisenhower (incumbent) Republican Pennsylvania 35,579,180 57.37% 457 Richard Nixon (incumbent) California 457
Adlai Stevenson II Democratic Illinois 26,028,028 41.97% 73 Estes Kefauver Tennessee 73
(Unpledged electors) (n/a) (n/a) 196,318 0.32% 0 (n/a) (n/a) 0
T. Coleman Andrews States' Rights Virginia 108,956 0.18% 0 Thomas H. Werdel California 0
Eric Hass Socialist Labor New York 44,450 0.07% 0 Georgia Cozzini Wisconsin 0
Enoch A. Holtwick Prohibition Illinois 41,937 0.07% 0 Edwin M. Cooper California 0
Farrell Dobbs Socialist Workers New York 7,797 0.01% 0 Myra Tanner Weiss California 0
Harry F. Byrd States' Rights Virginia 2,657 <0.01% 0 William E. Jenner Indiana 0
Darlington Hoopes Socialist Pennsylvania 2,128 <0.01% 0 Samuel H. Friedman New York 0
Henry B. Krajewski American Third New Jersey 1,829 <0.01% 0 Anna Yezo New Jersey 0
Gerald L. K. Smith Christian Nationalist Michigan 8 <0.01% 0 Charles Robertson Michigan 0
Walter Burgwyn Jones Democratic Alabama (a) (a) 1 Herman Talmadge Georgia 1
Other 8,691 0.01% Other
Total 62,021,979 100% 531 531
Needed to win 266 266

Source (Popular Vote): Leip, David. "1956 Presidential Election Results". Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections. Retrieved August 1, 2005.Source (Electoral Vote): "Electoral College Box Scores 1789–1996". National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved August 1, 2005.

Popular vote
Eisenhower
57.37%
Stevenson
41.97%
Unpledged
0.32%
Others
0.34%
Electoral vote
Eisenhower
86.06%
Stevenson
13.75%
Jones
0.19%

Results by state

Source: [16]

States/districts won by Stevenson/Kefauver
States/districts won by Eisenhower/Nixon
Dwight D. Eisenhower
Republican
Adlai Stevenson
Democratic
T. Coleman Andrews/Unpledged Electors[b]
States' Rights
Eric Hass
Socialist Labor
Margin State Total
State electoral
votes
# % electoral
votes
# % electoral
votes
# % electoral
votes
# % electoral
votes
# % #
Alabama 11 195,694 39.39 - 280,844 56.52 10 20,323 4.09 - - - - -85,150 -17.13 496,871 AL
Arizona 4 176,990 60.99 4 112,880 38.90 - 303 0.10 - - - - 64,110 22.09 290,173 AZ
Arkansas 8 186,287 45.82 - 213,277 52.46 8 7,008 1.72 - - - - -26,990 -6.64 406,572 AR
California 32 3,027,668 55.39 32 2,420,135 44.27 - 6,087 0.11 - 300 0.01 - 607,533 11.11 5,466,355 CA
Colorado 6 394,479 59.49 6 263,997 39.81 - 759 0.11 - 3,308 0.50 - 130,482 19.68 663,074 CO
Connecticut 8 711,837 63.72 8 405,079 36.26 - - - - - - - 306,758 27.46 1,117,121 CT
Delaware 3 98,057 55.09 3 79,421 44.62 - - - - 110 0.06 - 18,636 10.47 177,988 DE
Florida 10 643,849 57.27 10 480,371 42.73 - - - - - - - 163,478 14.54 1,124,220 FL
Georgia 12 216,652 32.65 - 441,094 66.48 12 - - - - - - -224,442 -33.83 663,480 GA
Idaho 4 166,979 61.17 4 105,868 38.78 - - - - - - - 61,111 22.39 272,989 ID
Illinois 27 2,623,327 59.52 27 1,775,682 40.29 - - - - 8,342 0.19 - 847,645 19.23 4,407,407 IL
Indiana 13 1,182,811 59.90 13 783,908 39.70 - - - - 1,334 0.07 - 398,903 20.20 1,974,607 IN
Iowa 10 729,187 59.06 10 501,858 40.65 - 3,202 0.26 - 125 0.01 - 227,329 18.41 1,234,564 IA
Kansas 8 566,878 65.44 8 296,317 34.21 - - - - - - - 270,561 31.23 866,243 KS
Kentucky 10 572,192 54.30 10 476,453 45.21 - - - - 358 0.03 - 95,739 9.09 1,053,805 KY
Louisiana 10 329,047 53.28 10 243,977 39.51 - 44,520 7.21 - - - - 85,070 13.78 617,544 LA
Maine 5 249,238 70.87 5 102,468 29.13 - - - - - - - 146,770 41.73 351,706 ME
Maryland 9 559,738 60.04 9 372,613 39.96 - - - - - - - 187,125 20.07 932,351 MD
Massachusetts 16 1,393,197 59.32 16 948,190 40.37 - - - - 5,573 0.24 - 445,007 18.95 2,348,506 MA
Michigan 20 1,713,647 55.63 20 1,359,898 44.15 - - - - - - - 353,749 11.48 3,080,468 MI
Minnesota 11 719,302 53.68 11 617,525 46.08 - - - - 2,080 0.16 - 101,777 7.60 1,340,005 MN
Mississippi 8 60,685 24.46 - 144,498 58.23 8 42,966 17.31 - - - - -83,813 -33.78 248,149 MS
Missouri 13 914,289 49.89 - 918,273 50.11 13 - - - - - - -3,984 -0.22 1,832,562 MO
Montana 4 154,933 57.13 4 116,238 42.87 - - - - - - - 38,695 14.27 271,171 MT
Nebraska 6 378,108 65.51 6 199,029 34.49 - - - - - - - 179,079 31.03 577,137 NE
Nevada 3 56,049 57.97 3 40,640 42.03 - - - - - - - 15,409 15.94 96,689 NV
New Hampshire 4 176,519 66.11 4 90,364 33.84 - 111 0.04 - - - - 86,155 32.27 266,994 NH
New Jersey 16 1,606,942 64.68 16 850,337 34.23 - 5,317 0.21 - 6,736 0.27 - 756,605 30.46 2,484,312 NJ
New Mexico 4 146,788 57.81 4 106,098 41.78 - 364 0.14 - 69 0.03 - 40,690 16.02 253,926 NM
New York 45 4,340,340 61.19 45 2,750,769 38.78 - - - - - - - 1,589,571 22.41 7,093,336 NY
North Carolina 14 575,062 49.34 - 590,530 50.66 14 - - - - - - -15,468 -1.33 1,165,592 NC
North Dakota 4 156,766 61.72 4 96,742 38.09 - 483 0.19 - - - - 60,024 23.63 253,991 ND
Ohio 25 2,262,610 61.11 25 1,439,655 38.89 - - - - - - - 822,955 22.23 3,702,265 OH
Oklahoma 8 473,769 55.13 8 385,581 44.87 - - - - - - - 88,188 10.26 859,350 OK
Oregon 6 406,393 55.25 6 329,204 44.75 - - - - - - - 77,189 10.49 735,597 OR
Pennsylvania 32 2,585,252 56.49 32 1,981,769 43.30 - - - - 7,447 0.16 - 603,483 13.19 4,576,503 PA
Rhode Island 4 225,819 58.26 4 161,790 41.74 - - - - - - - 64,029 16.52 387,611 RI
South Carolina 8 75,700 25.18 - 136,372 45.37 8 88,511 29.45 - - - - -47,863 -15.92 300,583 SC
South Dakota 4 171,569 58.39 4 122,288 41.61 - - - - - - - 49,281 16.77 293,857 SD
Tennessee 11 462,288 49.21 11 456,507 48.60 - 19,820 2.11 - - - - 5,781 0.62 939,404 TN
Texas 24 1,080,619 55.26 24 859,958 43.98 - 14,591 0.75 - - - - 220,661 11.28 1,955,545 TX
Utah 4 215,631 64.56 4 118,364 35.44 - - - - - - - 97,267 29.12 333,995 UT
Vermont 3 110,390 72.16 3 42,549 27.81 - - - - - - - 67,841 44.35 152,978 VT
Virginia 12 386,459 55.37 12 267,760 38.36 - 42,964 6.16 - 351 0.05 - 118,699 17.01 697,978 VA
Washington 9 620,430 53.91 9 523,002 45.44 - - - - 7,457 0.65 - 97,428 8.47 1,150,889 WA
West Virginia 8 449,297 54.08 8 381,534 45.92 - - - - - - - 67,763 8.16 830,831 WV
Wisconsin 12 954,844 61.58 12 586,768 37.84 - 6,918 0.45 - 710 0.05 - 368,076 23.74 1,550,558 WI
Wyoming 3 74,573 60.08 3 49,554 39.92 - - - - - - - 25,019 20.16 124,127 WY
TOTALS: 531 35,579,180 57.37 457 26,028,028 41.97 73 301,417 0.49 - 44,300 0.07 - 9,551,152 15.40 62,021,979 US

Close states

Margin of victory less than 1% (24 electoral votes):

  1. Missouri, 0.22% (3,984 votes)
  2. Tennessee, 0.62% (5,781 votes)

Margin of victory less than 5% (14 electoral votes):

  1. North Carolina, 1.33% (15,468 votes)

Margin of victory over 5%, but under 10% (46 electoral votes)

  1. Arkansas, 6.64% (26,990 votes)
  2. Minnesota, 7.60% (101,777 votes)
  3. West Virginia, 8.16% (67,763 votes)
  4. Washington, 8.47% (97,428 votes)
  5. Kentucky, 9.09% (95,739 votes)

Tipping point state:

  1. New Mexico, 16.00% (40,690 votes)

(a) Alabama faithless elector W. F. Turner, who was pledged to Adlai Stevenson and Estes Kefauver, instead cast his votes for Walter Burgwyn Jones, who was a circuit court judge in Turner's home town, and Herman Talmadge, governor of the neighboring state of Georgia.

Because of the admission of Alaska and Hawaii as states in 1959, the 1956 presidential election was the last in which there were 531 electoral votes.

Statistics

[17]

Counties with Highest Percent of Vote (Republican)

  1. Gillespie County, Texas 92.61%
  2. Kenedy County, Texas 92.59%
  3. Kane County, Utah 90.20%
  4. Jackson County, Kentucky 88.35%
  5. Johnson County, Tennessee 87.44%

Counties with Highest Percent of Vote (Democratic)

  1. Baker County, Georgia 96.07%
  2. Greene County, North Carolina 93.67%
  3. Berrien County, Georgia 93.56%
  4. Atkinson County, Georgia 93.37%
  5. Madison County, Georgia 93.24%

Counties with Highest Percent of Vote (Other)

  1. Williamsburg County, South Carolina 73.00%
  2. Clarendon County, South Carolina 66.88%
  3. Sumter County, South Carolina 62.00%
  4. Bamberg County, South Carolina 59.66%
  5. Calhoun County, South Carolina 58.73%

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Although he grew up in Kansas before his military career, at the time of the 1952 election Eisenhower was president of Columbia University and was, officially, a resident of New York. During his first term as president, he moved his private residence to Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, and officially changed his residency to Pennsylvania.
  2. ^ Was allied with a slate of unpledged electors in Louisiana, Mississippi and South Carolina

Citations

  1. ^ "National General Election VEP Turnout Rates, 1789-Present". United States Election Project. CQ Press.
  2. ^ "The Presidents". David Leip. Retrieved September 27, 2017. Eisenhower's home state for the 1956 Election was Pennsylvania
  3. ^ Eisenhower, Dwight D. (1956). "C-SPAN" (Video). Universal International. Archived from the original on May 17, 2022.
  4. ^ Angus Campbell; et al. (1960). The American Voter. p. 56. ISBN 9780226092546.
  5. ^ Robert R. Alford, "The role of social class in American voting behavior", Eisenhower became the first Republican since William McKinley to win two straight presidential elections,Western Political Quarterly 16.1 (1963): 180–194.
  6. ^ Steven E, Ambrose, Nixon: vol 1 The education of a politician 1913-1962 (1987) p. 385
  7. ^ "Joe Smith Incident | C-SPAN.org". www.c-span.org. Retrieved December 31, 2023.
  8. ^ Childs, Marquis W. (May 22, 1956). "Kefauver, Stevenson Agree in Attack On Administration in TV Debate". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. p. 2. Retrieved May 16, 2022.
  9. ^ Kalb, Deborah, ed. (2010). Guide to U.S. Elections. Washington, DC: CQ Press. p. 403. ISBN 978-1-60426-536-1.
  10. ^ Emmet John Hughes, "52,000,000 TV Sets-How Many Votes?" The New York Times, September 25, 1960, SM23
  11. ^ Borhi, László (1999). "Containment, Rollback, Liberation or Inaction? The United States and Hungary in the 1950s" (PDF). Journal of Cold War Studies. 1 (3): 67–108. doi:10.1162/152039799316976814. S2CID 57560214. Retrieved June 29, 2009. As Vice President Richard Nixon later explained: "We couldn't on one hand, complain about the Soviets intervening in Hungary and, on the other hand, approve of the British and the French picking that particular time to intervene against [Gamel Abdel] Nasser".
  12. ^ "How Britain France and Israel Got Together". Time. November 12, 1956. Archived from the original on December 14, 2008. State Department officials are sure that the British and French callously deceived or misled them from this date onward. On October 23 Pineau dashed over to London, reportedly to tell Eden that Israel was all ready to launch preventive war on Nasser. Ben-Gurion's moment was well chosen because, it was reasoned, 1) the U.S. would not dare move decisively against Israel on the verge of a presidential election, and 2) the Hungarian rebellion, then at its height, would keep Russia's hands tied.
  13. ^ Mickey, Robert (February 19, 2015). Paths Out of Dixie: The Democratization of Authoritarian Enclaves in America's Deep South, 1944-1972. Princeton University Press. p. 187. ISBN 9780691149639.
  14. ^ Schickler, Eric (April 26, 2016). Racial Realignment: The Transformation of American Liberalism, 1932-1965. Princeton University Press. p. 245. ISBN 9781400880973.
  15. ^ Murphy, Paul (1974). Political Parties In American History, Volume 3, 1890-present. G. P. Putnam's Sons.
  16. ^ "1956 Presidential General Election Data - National". Retrieved March 18, 2013.
  17. ^ "1956 Presidential General Election Data - National". Retrieved March 18, 2013.

References

Further reading

  • Converse, Philip E., Warren E. Miller, Donald E. Stokes, Angus Campbell. The American Voter (1964) the classic political science study of voters in 1952 and 1956
  • Divine, Robert A. (1974). Foreign Policy and U.S. Presidential Elections, 1952–1960. ISBN 0-531-06496-4., pp 87–182.
  • Johnstone, Andrew, and Andrew Priest, eds. US Presidential Elections and Foreign Policy: Candidates, Campaigns, and Global Politics from FDR to Bill Clinton (2017) pp 105–127. online
  • Martin, John Bartlow. Adlai Stevenson and the World: The Life of Adlai E. Stevenson (1977) online
  • Moon, Henry Lee. "The Negro Vote in the Presidential Election of 1956." Journal of Negro Education (1957): 219–230. online
  • Nichols, David A. Eisenhower 1956: The President's Year of Crisis--Suez and the Brink of War (2012).
  • Scheele, Henry Z. "The 1956 Nomination of Dwight D. Eisenhower: Maintaining the Hero Image." Presidential Studies Quarterly (1987): 459–471. online

Primary sources

External links