Brigadier General James Monroe Williams

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An embassy without a government (Russian: посольство без правительства, romanized: posol'stvo bez pravitel'stva)[1][2][3][4] is a diplomatic mission that represents a deposed government to its host country. Such a mission usually arises from a civil conflict which leads to a regime change from an internationally recognised government to one or more new governments that may or may not be recognised when established for a variety or reasons.

History

Russia (1917–1925)

After the February Revolution, then People's Commissar Leon Trotsky dismissed the diplomatic corps of the Russian Republic. With the outbreak of the Russian Civil War, the Tsarist-aligned corps continued to operate in support of the Russian Provisional Government, working with the governments of Alexander Kolchak, Anton Denikin and Pyotr Wrangel.[5]

In October 1917, Vasily Maklakov was appointed to replace Alexander Izvolsky as Ambassador to France. When he arrived in Paris to present his credentials, Maklakov learned of the Bolshevik takeover (October Revolution) and he represented a no longer existent government.[5] In December was put out of charge by Trotsky but nevertheless continued to occupy the Russian embassy for seven years.[6] Hôtel d'Estrées served as the informal headquarters of the White émigré, the anti-Bolsheviks.

Throughout that period, French authorities considered Maklakov "an ambassador who had not yet been accredited".[7] There was considerable ambiguity in this position. For example, he once received a letter from Premier Clemenceau addressed to "Son Excellence Monsieur Maklakoff, Ambassade de Russie", with the lightly erased letters "ur" at the end of "Ambassade".[8] Maklakov lightly compared himself to "a magazine that one puts on a seat to show that it is occupied".[9]

With the Tsarist government deposed, Konstantin Nabokov (ambassador in London) and Maklakov telegrammed their counterparts in Rome and Washington, urging them of the necessity of coordinating their actions in response to the events in Petrograd.[5] Maklakov, a judge, deemed that the Soviet government was illegitimate in the way it violently seized power, and was hopeful that "vigorous opposition" would be stirred up in the country.[5] The day after the revolution, the mission in Copenhagen, headed by chargé d'affaires Mikhail Meyendorff, circulated a wire to Russian missions in the allied and neutral countries of Europe, asking advise regarding coordination efforts.[5] On November 10 (O.S. October 28), the ambassador in Rome, Mikhail Giers, endorsed Maklakov's actions. On the other hand, Boris Bakhmeteff, ambassador to the United States, took a more sympathetic approach stance to the U.S.'s position towards the war.[5]

Ultimately, most diplomats agreed with Nabokov, and diplomatic efforts became coordinated and based in Paris at the suggestion of chargé d'affaires in Madrid, Yury Solovyov.[5] The embassies acted as parallel representatives of Russia to other countries, competing with the newly established Soviet Union for diplomatic recognition.[10] Among these were consuls in seven U.S. cities and three Canadian cities, receiving financing and support from the U.S. government,[10] as well as ambassadors and other representatives in Europe and Japan.

The ambassadors worked under the notion proposed by the ambassador to Siam, Iosif Loris-Melikov: the lack of a legitimate government meant that they could not resign, and that such an action would serve as an implicit recognition of the Soviet government. Thus, the tsarist politicians would serve as representatives of Russia until a new legitimate government was established, participating in events such as the 18th Inter-Allied Conference held in Paris in late 1917.[5] Financing took place through loans to local missions by the host countries' governments, and the embassy's accounts were drained into temporary accounts or used to buy war bonds in order to prevent that the money is used by the Soviet government in the event that the missions closed.[5]

After being reminded of the council's actions, Trotsky issued a telegram on November 30, 1917 (O.S. November 17) that deposed Maklakov of all diplomatic functions. Another telegram on the same day stating that the Council of People's Commissars suggested that all embassy staff respond immediately as to whether or not they were to follow a foreign policy that aligned with the Congress of Soviets.[5][10] The telegram went unanswered, with the exception of Solovyov in Madrid and Roman von Ungern-Sternberg in Lisbon, who were boycotted by the council and allied diplomats, and as a result, another telegram was issued on December 9 (O.S. November 26) relieving 28 diplomats of their duties without a right to a pension.[5]

In late November (O.S. October) 1917,[10] the "Council of Ambassadors" (Russian: Совещания послов)[5][10] was established to ensure unanimity among the tsarist diplomats. It included diplomats Giers (Italy), Nabokov (United Kingdom), Stakhovich (Spain) and Efremov (Switzerland). Maklakov acted as the council's leader, followed by Giers.[5] A number of diplomats remained active up until 1940 without having any contact with the council, as was the case of Yevgeny Shtein (Buenos Aires; to 1931), Pavel Pustoshkin (The Hague; to 1940) and S. A. Uget (Washington D.C.; to 1933).[5]

Incidents took place between tsarist and bolshevik diplomats. One such event took place in Bern, when Andrei Mikhailovich Onu, the tsarist ambassador to Switzerland, refused to hand over his mission to Soviet ambassador Jan Antonovich Berzin, demanding that the Swiss government recognise his embassy as the only legitimate mission to the country.[10] A similar situation took place in London, with the Soviet ambassador being unable to occupy the embassy due to the British government siding with the tsarists.[10]

Between 1920 and 1925, the council slowly started to fade as the USSR was recognised instead, representing instead the émigré movement instead of a Russian state.[5][10] For example, after the signing of the Treaty of Rapallo, the German mission was renamed to the Russian Refugee Organization.[5] Tsarist diplomats were allowed to attend the Paris Peace Conference, but not at an official capacity.[10] The council ultimately did not survive past the early 1920s.[10]

The consuls in North America stopped their services in the late 1920s; the U.S. government seized the records of the consulates. The seizure started a long dispute. The National Archives and Records Administration received the documents in 1949. In 1980 the U.S. government loaned the documents of the Canadian consulates to the Library and Archives Canada. On 31 January 1990 the U.S. returned the documents to the Soviet Union and kept the microfilms as evidence.[11]

Diplomatic missions after 1917

Host country Host city Mission End Ref.
 Argentina Buenos Aires Mission 1931 [5]
 Bulgaria Sofia Mission 1923 [5]
 Canada Ottawa Embassy 1920s
 China Beijing Embassy 1920 [5]
Shanghai Consulate 1920 [5]
 France Paris Embassy 1924 [6]
 Japan Tokyo Embassy 1925 [5][2]
  Switzerland Bern Embassy 1922 [12]
 United Kingdom London Embassy 1924 [5]
 United States Washington, D.C. Embassy 1922 [5]

Dissolution of the Soviet Union

A similar situation occurred very briefly as part of the dissolution of the Soviet Union; between 16–24 December 1991, the Soviet Union neither controlled nor claimed to control any territory (thus making it not a government-in-exile), but embassies and the United Nations still recognized the Soviet Union instead of Russia. The United Nations would recognize Russia in place of the Soviet Union on 24 December 1991, and the embassies would follow suit.[13][14]

Spain (1939–1977)

Calle Londres in Colonia Juárez, Mexico City. The building on the left served as the Republican embassy until the Spanish transition.

After the victory of the Nationalist faction of the Spanish Civil War on April 1, 1939, the Republican government established a government-in-exile on April 4. In the immediate postwar period, it had diplomatic relations with Mexico, Panama, Guatemala, Venezuela, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Romania, and Albania,[15] but the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union did not recognise it.[16]

As more countries established relations with the new Spanish government, the number diminished. By the time it was dissolved in 1977, it had relations and embassies only with Mexico and Yugoslavia.[17][18][19]

Diplomatic missions after 1939

Host country Host city Mission End Ref.
 Mexico Mexico City Embassy 1977 [17][18][19]
 Yugoslavia Belgrade Embassy 1977 [17][18][19]

Poland (1939–1990)

The Polish government-in-exile operated from September 1939 to December 1990. During World War II, the embassy in London was administered by the government-in-exile until the United Kingdom recgonised the Polish People's Republic after the Yalta conference, forcing the government out of the embassy and into the president's private residence at 43 Eaton Place.[20][21] In Spain, the government was recognised in 1939 and the embassy was allowed to remain open for the entirety of the war.[22] An Honorary Consulate in Barcelona organized temporary accommodation, false documents and transport for Polish civilians and military who fled from France to Spain in 1939–1942 with the intention of reaching the United Kingdom.[23]

Diplomatic missions after 1939

Host country Host city Mission End Ref.
 Spain Madrid Embassy 1968 [22]
 United Kingdom London Embassy 1945 [20]

Afghanistan (2021–present)

Diplomatic missions of Afghanistan
  Afghanistan
  Afghan embassies aligned with the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
  Afghan embassies aligned with the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
  Sovereignty not recognized by Afghanistan

After the collapse of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan that ended with the capture of Kabul by the Taliban on August 15, 2021, a government-in-exile was proclaimed on August 17.[24][25][26] The country's diplomatic network abroad continued its allegiance to the former Republic, as a number of the diplomats posted had personally contributed to the country's reconstruction after 2001.[1] Efforts made by the corps, now reduced in staff size and financed by donors and consular activities alone,[27] have been mostly focused on Western countries, as several Afghan missions in Asia have been handed over to the new government.[1][28][29]

In the absence of a foreign ministry, the Coordination Group was established by the republican ambassadors in order to coordinate efforts via mostly online meetings,[1] and, similar to the Russian effort, the so-called Council of Ambassadors currently acts as the embassies' government system.[1][30][31]

Also similar to the Russian effort, incidents have occurred between republican and emirian diplomats, as was the case in Rome, where the police were called after a physical altercation between the ambassadors.[1][27][29][32] A number of diplomats of the new government have also been denied their positions, as was the case of Suhail Shaheen, who was appointed envoy to the United Nations, but declined by the organisation.[27][32]

Diplomatic missions after 2021

Host country Host city Mission Transf. Ref.
Africa
 Egypt Cairo Embassy No
Americas
 Canada Ottawa Embassy No [33]
 United States Washington, D.C. Embassy No [1]
Asia
 Azerbaijan Baku Embassy No [29]
 Bangladesh Dhaka Embassy [34]
 China Beijing Embassy 2022 [35]
 India New Delhi Embassy 2023 [36][37]
Hyderabad Consulate-General [38]
Mumbai Consulate-General [39]
 Iran Tehran Embassy 2023 [40]
Mashad Consulate-General
Zahedan Consulate-General
 Iraq Baghdad Embassy No
 Japan Doha Embassy [41]
 Jordan Amman Embassy
 Kazakhstan Astana Embassy 2023 [42]
 Kuwait Kuwait City Embassy No
 Kyrgyzstan Bishkek Embassy
 Malaysia Kuala Lumpur Embassy
 Oman Muscat Embassy
 Pakistan Tehran Embassy 2021 [32][43]
Karachi Consulate-General [32][43]
Peshawar Consulate-General [32][43]
Quetta Consulate-General [32][43]
 Qatar Doha Embassy [44]
 Saudi Arabia Riyadh Embassy No [a]
Jeddah Consulate-General
 South Korea Seoul Embassy [1]
 Tajikistan Dushanbe Embassy
Kharogh Consulate-General
 Turkey Ankara Embassy [b]
Istanbul Consulate-General [c]
 Turkmenistan Ashgabat Embassy 2022 [47][48][49]
Mary Consulate-General
 United Arab Emirates Abu Dhabi Embassy No
Dubai Consulate-General 2023 [28][50]
 Uzbekistan Tashkent Embassy No [d][45]
Termez Consulate-General 2023 [51]
Europe
 Austria Vienna Embassy No
 Belgium Brussels Embassy
 Bulgaria Sofia Embassy
 Czech Republic Prague Embassy
 France Paris Embassy
 Germany Berlin Embassy
Bonn Consulate-General
Munich Consulate-General
 Greece Athens Embassy
 Italy Rome Embassy
 Netherlands The Hague Embassy
 Norway Oslo Embassy
 Poland Warsaw Embassy
 Russia Moscow Embassy 2022 [45]
 Spain Madrid Embassy No
 Sweden Stockholm Embassy
  Switzerland Geneva Embassy
 Ukraine Kyiv Embassy
 United Kingdom Embassy Embassy
Oceania
 Australia Canberra Embassy No [1]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Suhail Shaheen has claimed Islamic Republic-appointed diplomats to Saudi Arabia are following instructions from the Islamic Emirate's Ministry of Foreign Affairs.[45][1]
  2. ^ There are reports that the Ankara embassy is obeying Taliban instructions.[1][28]
  3. ^ It was reported in February 2023 by the Khaama Press Agency that Turkey had handed over the consulate in Istanbul to a Taliban appointee. However, in April 2023, Foreign Policy reported that the existing leadership of the consulate had refused to step down.[46][1]
  4. ^ There are reports that the Tashkent embassy is obeying Taliban instructions.[1]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Judah, Jacob (2 April 2023). "Afghanistan's Ambassadors Fly the Flag Against the Taliban". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 2 April 2023.
  2. ^ a b Fröhlich, Judith (2017). Die Nikolai-Kathedrale, das Große Kantō-Erdbeben von 1923 und das Ende des alten Russlands in Japan (in German). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 33–59. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  3. ^ Barnett, Stephen R. (1955-05-17). "Came the Revolution". The Harvard Crimson.
  4. ^ "In the Czar's Service". The New York Times. 1964-11-22.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Kononova, Margarita (2017). "Russian Diplomacy in Emigration: Challenging the October Revolution". Russian International Affairs Council. RIAC Project.
  6. ^ a b "Василий Алексеевич Маклаков (1869–1957). "ХОТЯ ЭТО И ПОДЛОЕ ПРАВИТЕЛЬСТВО, НО ЭТО ВСЕ-ТАКИ РУССКОЕ ПРАВИТЕЛЬСТВО…". Роковая Фемида. Драматические судьбы знаменитых российских юристов. Александр Григорьевич Звягинцев". Archived from the original on 2018-09-05. Retrieved 2022-04-04.
  7. ^ Hassell, James E. Russian Refugees in France and the United States Between the World Wars. DIANE, 1991. Page 25.
  8. ^ Quoted from Hassell, page 33.
  9. ^ Hassell, page 25.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Kocho-Williams, Alastair (2020-08-19). ""Embassy without Government": The Council of Ambassadors and the Persistence of Tsarist Diplomacy after the Russian Revolution". Diplomacy & Statecraft. 31 (3): 469–486. doi:10.1080/09592296.2020.1782674. S2CID 221192513.
  11. ^ Archives.gov
  12. ^ "Russia. Posol'stvo (France) records". California Digital Library.
  13. ^ https://www.britannica.com/event/the-collapse-of-the-Soviet-Union/The-end-of-Soviet-communism
  14. ^ https://www.lse.ac.uk/ideas/events/2021/12/collapse-of-the-soviet-union-30-years-on/collapse-of-the-soviet-union-30-years-on-transition-and-soviet-legacy
  15. ^ Shain, Yossi (ed). Governments-in-Exile in Contemporary World Politics. New York: Routledge. 1991, p. 152.
  16. ^ Ebon, Martin. World Communism Today. New York: Whittlesey House. 1948, p. 252.
  17. ^ a b c "History of diplomatic relations between Mexico and Spain (in Spanish)" (PDF). sre.gob.mx.
  18. ^ a b c "Republicans in Mexico Waiting". The Fort Scott Tribune. 1975-11-14. p. 750. Retrieved 2020-05-31.
  19. ^ a b c Talmon, Stefan; Talmon, Co-Director Institute of International Law and Professor of Law Stefan (1998). Recognition of Governments in International Law: With Particular Reference to Governments in Exile. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-826573-3.
  20. ^ a b Editor Peter D. Stachura Chapter 4 by Wojciech Rojek The Poles in Britain 1940-2000 ISBN 0-7146-8444-9 Page 33
  21. ^ "Polish government in exile". London Remembers.
  22. ^ a b "Polonia y España: los vínculos históricos entre dos grandes Naciones de Europa". Contando Estrellas. 2018-11-11.
  23. ^ "Punkt kontaktowy w Barcelonie". Ośrodek Debaty Międzynarodowej Rzeszów (in Polish). Retrieved 4 April 2021.
  24. ^ "Afghan vice president says he is "caretaker" president". reuters.com. 17 August 2021. Archived from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
  25. ^ "An anti-Taliban front forming in Panjshir? Ex top spy Saleh, son of 'Lion of Panjshir' meet at citadel". The Week. 17 August 2021. Archived from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  26. ^ "Panjshir flies flag of resistance again; Amrullah says he is President of Afghanistan". Tribune India. 17 August 2021. Archived from the original on May 17, 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  27. ^ a b c "Afghan diplomats under pressure from Taliban regime". Agence France-Presse. Islamabad. France 24. 14 March 2022. Retrieved 6 April 2022.
  28. ^ a b c Siddique, Abubakar (7 April 2023). "Unrecognized Taliban Aims To Boost Legitimacy By Wresting Control Of Afghan Diplomatic Missions". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 9 April 2023.
  29. ^ a b c Detsch, Jack (7 January 2022). "Afghanistan's Diplomats Refuse to Represent a Terrorist Group". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 22 January 2022.
  30. ^ Coll, Steve (2023-08-13). "An Ambassador Without a Country". The New Yorker.
  31. ^ Curry, Georgia (2023-08-18). "Embassy of Afghanistan without a leader but keeps hope alive". Canberra Weekly.
  32. ^ a b c d e f Stancati, Margherita (18 January 2022). "Taliban Intensify Efforts to Take Control of Afghanistan's Overseas Embassies". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  33. ^ Detsch, Jack; Gramer, Robbie (15 March 2022). "'Nowhere to Turn to': U.S. Forces Closure of Afghan Embassy". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 2 April 2022.
  34. ^ Rahman, Mizanur (4 September 2021). "Incredible silence at the Afghan Embassy in Dhaka". Manab Zamin (in Bengali). Retrieved 5 April 2022.
  35. ^ Javid Ahmad Qaem [@JavidQaem] (January 10, 2022). "Handover note addressed to Mr. Mahyuddin Saddat First Secretary, Assigned to Beijing" (Tweet). Retrieved 6 April 2022 – via Twitter. I am taking leave from 2nd January 2022. Looking to the circumstance and restrictions, it is not very clear when I can return to office. So, I am leaving this hand over note for a smooth transition at the Afghan Embassy in Beijing.
  36. ^ "Afghan embassy in Delhi to cease operations from Oct. 1". Reuters. 2023-09-30. Retrieved 2023-10-01.
  37. ^ "As of October 1, Afghanistan Embassy in New Delhi Stands Closed". The Wire. Retrieved 2023-10-01.
  38. ^ Haidar, Suhasini (2023-09-29). "Afghan consulates counter embassy's decision to shut down". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2023-10-01.
  39. ^ Haidar, Suhasini (2023-09-29). "Afghan consulates counter embassy's decision to shut down". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2023-10-01.
  40. ^ Rahmati, Fidel (27 February 2023). "Iran handed over Afghan Embassy in Tehran to Interim Regime of Afghanistan". The Khaama Press Agency. Retrieved 27 February 2023.
  41. ^ Embassy of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, Tokyo (2 April 2022). "Announcement of Ramadan Hours" (in Pashto). Facebook. Retrieved 5 April 2022.
  42. ^ Kumenov, Almaz (April 19, 2023). "Kazakhstan acredits taliban envoys without recognizing government". Eurasia.net.
  43. ^ a b c d Khan, Tahir (29 October 2021). "Taliban Install Diplomats in Pakistan Embassy, Missions". Voice of America. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  44. ^ Ahmad, Jibran (29 October 2021). "Afghan Taliban appoint new envoy to run embassy in neighbouring Pakistan". Reuters. Peshawar, Pakistan and Kabul. Retrieved 23 July 2022. Two other Taliban officials in the foreign affairs and interior ministries confirmed the appointment to Reuters and said similar arrangements had been made in Qatar
  45. ^ a b c "Russia Latest Country to Establish Diplomatic Ties With Taliban". Voice of America. 9 April 2022. Retrieved 25 April 2022.
  46. ^ Rezahi, Nizamuddin (27 February 2023). "Turkiye Hands Over Afghan Consulate in Istanbul to Afghanistan's Interim Government". The Khaama Press Agency. Retrieved 28 February 2023.
  47. ^ "Turkmenistan: Berdymukhamedov passes the mantle (and phone)". Eurasianet. 22 March 2022. Retrieved 6 April 2022.
  48. ^ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (19 March 2022). "Appointed by IEA MFA, Mr. Mohammad Fazel Saber was introduced in a ceremony as chargé d'affaires to his colleagues at the Afghan Embassy in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, yesterday". Retrieved 6 April 2022.
  49. ^ "IEA introduces caretaker ambassador to Turkmenistan". Ariana News. 17 March 2022. Retrieved 6 April 2022.
  50. ^ "Afghan Interim Govt Appoints Envoy to Afghanistan's Consulate General in Dubai". Khaama Press. 14 March 2023. Retrieved 22 March 2023.
  51. ^ "Uzbek Border Town Adjusts to the Taliban as Neighbors". VOA. 2023-08-15. Retrieved 2023-09-05.
source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embassy_without_a_government