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Why do we need two images of the same ewer, and then one image of another ewer...? This is not even a section ("ewer" only appears once in the section (!)) on ewers, let alone an article. @पाटलिपुत्र This random image adding and shoehorning needs to be stop, seriously. I doubt a bunch of ewers will enlighten the readers.
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==Metalwork==
==Metalwork==
{{see also|History of metallurgy in Mosul}}
{{see also|History of metallurgy in Mosul}}
⚫
[[File:Blacas Ewer, Mosul, 1232, British Museum.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Blacas ewer]], made by Shuja' ibn Man'a in Mosul in 1232, is one of the most famous brass pieces from Mosul.]]
[[File:Ewer with Inscription,Mosul, 1226.jpg|thumb|Ewer with inscription, probably Mosul, dated 1226.<ref>{{cite web |title=`Umar ibn al-Hajji Jaldak Ewer with Inscription, Horsemen, and Vegetal Decoration |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/444586 |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |language=en}}</ref>]]
[[File:Blacas ewer, regnal scene.jpg|thumb|Regnal scene on the Blacas ewer, 1232, [[Mosul]], Zengid dynasty.<ref>{{cite web |title=Blacas ewer British Museum |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1866-1229-61 |website=www.britishmuseum.org |language=en}}</ref>]]
In the 13th century, Mosul had a flourishing industry making luxury brass items that were ornately [[inlay|inlaid]] with silver.<ref name="Rice 1957">{{cite journal |last1=Rice |first1=D.S. |title=Inlaid Brasses from the Workshop of Aḥmad al-Dhakī al-Mawṣilī |journal=Ars Orientalis |date=1957 |volume=2 |pages=283–326 |jstor=4629040 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629040 |access-date=17 November 2022}}</ref>{{rp|283–6}} Many of these items survive today; in fact, of all medieval Islamic artifacts, Mosul brasswork has the most [[epigraphy|epigraphic]] inscriptions.<ref name="Raby 2012">{{cite book |last1=Raby |first1=Julian |editor1-last=Porter |editor1-first=Venetia |editor2-last=Rosser-Owen |editor2-first=Mariam |title=Metalwork and Material Culture in the Islamic World |date=2012 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-85773-343-6 |url=https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/19550/fsg_Julian%20Raby_%202012%20Mosul_watermarked.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date=18 November 2022 |chapter=The Principle of Parsimony and the Problem of the 'Mosul School of Metalwork' |pages=11–85}}</ref>{{rp|12}} However, the only reference to this industry in contemporary sources is the account of [[Ibn Sa'id]], an Andalusian geographer who traveled through the region around 1250.<ref name="Rice 1957"/>{{rp|283–4}} He wrote that "there are many crafts in the city, especially inlaid brass vessels which are exported (and presented) to rulers".<ref name="Rice 1957"/>{{rp|284}} These were expensive items that only the wealthiest could afford, and it wasn't until the early 1200s that Mosul had the demand for large-scale production of them.<ref name="Rice 1957"/>{{rp|285}} Mosul was then a wealthy, prosperous capital city, first for the Zengids and then for Badr al-Din Lu'lu'.<ref name="Rice 1957"/>{{rp|285}}
In the 13th century, Mosul had a flourishing industry making luxury brass items that were ornately [[inlay|inlaid]] with silver.<ref name="Rice 1957">{{cite journal |last1=Rice |first1=D.S. |title=Inlaid Brasses from the Workshop of Aḥmad al-Dhakī al-Mawṣilī |journal=Ars Orientalis |date=1957 |volume=2 |pages=283–326 |jstor=4629040 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629040 |access-date=17 November 2022}}</ref>{{rp|283–6}} Many of these items survive today; in fact, of all medieval Islamic artifacts, Mosul brasswork has the most [[epigraphy|epigraphic]] inscriptions.<ref name="Raby 2012">{{cite book |last1=Raby |first1=Julian |editor1-last=Porter |editor1-first=Venetia |editor2-last=Rosser-Owen |editor2-first=Mariam |title=Metalwork and Material Culture in the Islamic World |date=2012 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-85773-343-6 |url=https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/19550/fsg_Julian%20Raby_%202012%20Mosul_watermarked.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date=18 November 2022 |chapter=The Principle of Parsimony and the Problem of the 'Mosul School of Metalwork' |pages=11–85}}</ref>{{rp|12}} However, the only reference to this industry in contemporary sources is the account of [[Ibn Sa'id]], an Andalusian geographer who traveled through the region around 1250.<ref name="Rice 1957"/>{{rp|283–4}} He wrote that "there are many crafts in the city, especially inlaid brass vessels which are exported (and presented) to rulers".<ref name="Rice 1957"/>{{rp|284}} These were expensive items that only the wealthiest could afford, and it wasn't until the early 1200s that Mosul had the demand for large-scale production of them.<ref name="Rice 1957"/>{{rp|285}} Mosul was then a wealthy, prosperous capital city, first for the Zengids and then for Badr al-Din Lu'lu'.<ref name="Rice 1957"/>{{rp|285}}


The origins of Mosul's inlaid brasswork industry are uncertain.<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|52}} The city had an iron industry in the late 10th century, when [[al-Muqaddasi]] recorded that it exported iron and iron goods like buckets, knives and chains.<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|52}} However, no surviving metal objects from Mosul are known before the early 13th century.<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|52}} Inlaid metalworking in the Islamic world was first developed in [[Khurasan]] in the 12th century by silversmiths facing a shortage of silver.<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|52–3}} By the mid-12th century, [[Herat]] in particular had gained a reputation for its high-quality inlaid metalwork.<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|53}} The practice of inlaying "required relatively few tools" and the technique spread westward, perhaps by Khurasani artisans moving to other cities.<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|53}}
The origins of Mosul's inlaid brasswork industry are uncertain.<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|52}} The city had an iron industry in the late 10th century, when [[al-Muqaddasi]] recorded that it exported iron and iron goods like buckets, knives and chains.<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|52}} However, no surviving metal objects from Mosul are known before the early 13th century.<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|52}} Inlaid metalworking in the Islamic world was first developed in [[Khurasan]] in the 12th century by silversmiths facing a shortage of silver.<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|52–3}} By the mid-12th century, [[Herat]] in particular had gained a reputation for its high-quality inlaid metalwork.<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|53}} The practice of inlaying "required relatively few tools" and the technique spread westward, perhaps by Khurasani artisans moving to other cities.<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|53}}


⚫
[[File:Blacas Ewer, Mosul, 1232, British Museum.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Blacas ewer]], made by Shuja' ibn Man'a in Mosul in 1232, is one of the most famous brass pieces from Mosul.]]
By the turn of the 13th century, the silver-inlaid-brass technique had reached Mosul.<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|53}} A pair of engraved brass ''[[flabella]]'' found in Egypt and possibly made in Mosul are dated by a Syriac inscription to the year 1202, which would make them the earliest known Mosul brasses with a definite date (although they are not inlaid with anything).<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|49–50}} One extant item may be even older: an inlaid ewer by the master craftsman [[Ibrahim ibn Mawaliya]] is of an unknown date, but D.S. Rice estimated that it was made around 1200.<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|53}} Production of inlaid brasswork in Mosul may have already begun before the turn of the century.<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|53–4}}
By the turn of the 13th century, the silver-inlaid-brass technique had reached Mosul.<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|53}} A pair of engraved brass ''[[flabella]]'' found in Egypt and possibly made in Mosul are dated by a Syriac inscription to the year 1202, which would make them the earliest known Mosul brasses with a definite date (although they are not inlaid with anything).<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|49–50}} One extant item may be even older: an inlaid ewer by the master craftsman [[Ibrahim ibn Mawaliya]] is of an unknown date, but D.S. Rice estimated that it was made around 1200.<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|53}} Production of inlaid brasswork in Mosul may have already begun before the turn of the century.<ref name="Raby 2012"/>{{rp|53–4}}


Revision as of 23:35, 19 February 2024

The Zengid or Zangid dynasty (Arabic: الدولة الزنكية romanized: al-Dawla al-Zinkia) was an Atabegate of the Seljuk Empire created in 1127.[2] It formed a Turkoman dynasty of Sunni Muslim faith,[3] which ruled parts of the Levant and Upper Mesopotamia, and eventually seized control of Egypt in 1169.[4][5] In 1174 the Zengid state extended from Tripoli to Hamadan and from Yemen to Sivas.[6][7] Imad ad-Din Zengi was the first ruler of the dynasty.

The Zengid Atabegate became famous in the Islamic world for its successes against the Crusaders, and for being the Atabegate from which Saladin originated.[8] Following the demise of the Seljuk dynasty in 1194, the Zengids persisted for several decades as one of the "Seljuq successor-states" until 1250.[9]

History

Nūr-ad-Din's victory at the Battle of Inab, 1149. Illustration from the Passages d'outremer, c. 1490.

In 1127, the Seljuk Empire decided to create an atabeg administration in Iraq and Syria: Zengi, son of Aq Sunqur al-Hajib, Seljuk Governor of Aleppo, was named as the Seljuk atabeg of Mosul.[10][2] He quickly became the chief Turkic potentate in Northern Syria and Iraq, taking Aleppo from the squabbling Artuqids in 1128 and capturing the County of Edessa from the Crusaders after the siege of Edessa in 1144. This latter feat made Zengi a hero in the Muslim world, but he was assassinated by a slave two years later, in 1146.[11]

On Zengi's death, his territories were divided, with Mosul and his lands in Iraq going to his eldest son Saif ad-Din Ghazi I, and Aleppo and Edessa falling to his second son, Nur ad-Din, atabeg of Aleppo.

Conflict with the Crusaders

Nur ad-Din proved to be as competent as his father. In 1146 he defeated the Crusaders at the Siege of Edessa. In 1149, he defeated Raymond of Poitiers, Prince of Antioch, at the battle of Inab, and the next year conquered the remnants of the County of Edessa west of the Euphrates.[12] In 1154, he capped off these successes by his capture of Damascus from the Turkic Burid dynasty that ruled it.[13]

Now ruling from Damascus, Nur ad-Din's success continued. Another Prince of Antioch, Raynald of Châtillon was captured, and the territories of the Principality of Antioch were greatly reduced.

Conquests

Hunting scene on the Blacas ewer, 1232, Mosul, Zengid dynasty.[14]

After the defeats of the Seljuk Empire in Khorasan and the death of the Seljuk ruler Ahmad Sanjar in 1157, the Zengids remained nominally under Seljuk suzerainty, but in practice became essentially independent.[2]

In the 1160s, Nur ad-Din's attention was mostly held by a competition with the King of Jerusalem, Amalric of Jerusalem, for control of the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt. From 1163 to 1169, Shirkuh, a military commander in the service of the Zengid dynasty, took part in a series of campaigns in Fatimid Egypt, on the pretext to help the Fatimid vizier Shawar regain his throne from his rival Dirgham, and in opposition to the Crusader invasions of Egypt.[15] In 1164, Latin Patriarch of Antioch Aimery of Limoges sent a letter to King Louis VII of France, in which he described the events in the Crusader States: "[Shirkuh] having gotten possession of Damascus, the latter entered Egypt with a great force of Turks, in order to conquer the country."[16]

In 1168, the Zengid army was called for a third time in Egypt, as the Crusaders were besieging Cairo.[15] The Crusaders lifted the siege and left.[15] In 1169, Shirkuh lured the vizier into an ambush and killed him after which he seized Egypt in the name of his master Nur ad-Din, becoming the new Fatimid vizier and amir al-juyush with the approval of Caliph al-Adid, and therefore bringing Egypt under formal Zengid dominion.[15][5][4]

During the reign of Nur al-Din (1146-1174), Tripoli, Yemen and the Hejaz were added to the state of the Zengids.[6] The Artuqids became vassals of the Zengids.[17] Nur ad-Din also took control of Anatolian lands up to Sivas. His state extended from Tripoli to Hamadan and from Yemen to Sivas.[7]

Shirkuh's nephew Saladin was appointed vizier by the last Fatimid caliph al-Adid and Governor of Egypt, in 1169. Al-Adid died in 1171, and Saladin took advantage of this power vacuum, effectively taking control of the country. Upon seizing power, he switched Egypt's allegiance to the Baghdad-based Abbasid Caliphate which adhered to Sunni Islam, rather than traditional Fatimid Shia practice.

Crowned Turkic figure holding a moon symbol, on a coin of Zengid Mosul ruler Izz al-Din Mas'ud. Mosul mint, dated 1189-90 CE.[18]

Nur ad-Din was preparing to invade the Kingdom of Jerusalem when he unexpectedly died in 1174. His son and successor As-Salih Ismail al-Malik was only a child, and was forced to flee to Aleppo, which he ruled until 1181, when he died of illness and was replaced by his cousin Imad al-Din Zengi II.

Decline (1183-1250)

Saladin conquered Aleppo in 1183, ending Zengid rule in Syria. Saladin launched his last offensive against Mosul in late 1185, hoping for an easy victory over the presumably demoralized Zengid Emir of Mosul Mas'ud, but failed due to the city's unexpectedly stiff resistance and a serious illness which caused Saladin to withdraw to Harran. Upon Abbasid encouragement, Saladin and Mas'ud negotiated a treaty in March 1186 that left the Zengids in control of Mosul, but under the obligation to supply the Ayyubids with military support when requested.[19][20]

Saladin's son, the Ayyubid ruler al-Adid, attempted to annnex the Zengid states in 1209, and besieged Sinjar. The Zengid ruler of Mosul Nur al-Din Arslan Shah I allied with Muzzafar al-Din Kukburi, ruler of Erbil, and resisted the Ayyubid offensive. They reached a truce, according to which al-Adid could retain the lands he conquered in Sinjar, and Arslan Shah would recognize Ayyubid suzerainty on his coinage.[21] As Arslan Shah's health was declining, and his sons were still young, he chose his Commander of the Army Badr al-Din Lu'lu' as protecter of his sons and promoted him to atabeg upon his death in 1211.[21] The son and two grandsons of Arslan Shah continued to rule as chidren in Northern Iraq as Emirs of Mosul and Sinjar until 1234, when Badr al-Din Lu'lu' formally took over.[21] He ruled in his own name until his death in 1259, accepting Mongol suzerainty after 1243.[21][22]

Northern Iraq (al-Jazira region), continued to be under Zengid rule until 1250, with its last Emir Mahmud al-Malik al-Zahir (1241–1250, son of Mu'izz al-Din Mahmud). In 1250, al-Jazira fell under the domination of An-Nasir Yusuf, the Ayyubid emir of Aleppo, marking the end of Zengid rule.

The next period would be marked by the arrival of the Mongols: in 1262 Mosul was sacked by the Mongols of Hulagu, following a siege of almost a year, which put an end to the short rule of the sons of Badr al-Din Lu'lu'.

Metalwork

See also: History of metallurgy in Mosul
The Blacas ewer, made by Shuja' ibn Man'a in Mosul in 1232, is one of the most famous brass pieces from Mosul.

In the 13th century, Mosul had a flourishing industry making luxury brass items that were ornately inlaid with silver.[23]: 283–6  Many of these items survive today; in fact, of all medieval Islamic artifacts, Mosul brasswork has the most epigraphic inscriptions.[24]: 12  However, the only reference to this industry in contemporary sources is the account of Ibn Sa'id, an Andalusian geographer who traveled through the region around 1250.[23]: 283–4  He wrote that "there are many crafts in the city, especially inlaid brass vessels which are exported (and presented) to rulers".[23]: 284  These were expensive items that only the wealthiest could afford, and it wasn't until the early 1200s that Mosul had the demand for large-scale production of them.[23]: 285  Mosul was then a wealthy, prosperous capital city, first for the Zengids and then for Badr al-Din Lu'lu'.[23]: 285 

The origins of Mosul's inlaid brasswork industry are uncertain.[24]: 52  The city had an iron industry in the late 10th century, when al-Muqaddasi recorded that it exported iron and iron goods like buckets, knives and chains.[24]: 52  However, no surviving metal objects from Mosul are known before the early 13th century.[24]: 52  Inlaid metalworking in the Islamic world was first developed in Khurasan in the 12th century by silversmiths facing a shortage of silver.[24]: 52–3  By the mid-12th century, Herat in particular had gained a reputation for its high-quality inlaid metalwork.[24]: 53  The practice of inlaying "required relatively few tools" and the technique spread westward, perhaps by Khurasani artisans moving to other cities.[24]: 53 

By the turn of the 13th century, the silver-inlaid-brass technique had reached Mosul.[24]: 53  A pair of engraved brass flabella found in Egypt and possibly made in Mosul are dated by a Syriac inscription to the year 1202, which would make them the earliest known Mosul brasses with a definite date (although they are not inlaid with anything).[24]: 49–50  One extant item may be even older: an inlaid ewer by the master craftsman Ibrahim ibn Mawaliya is of an unknown date, but D.S. Rice estimated that it was made around 1200.[24]: 53  Production of inlaid brasswork in Mosul may have already begun before the turn of the century.[24]: 53–4 

The body of Mosul metalwork significantly expands in the 1220s - several signed and dated items are known from this decade, which according to Julian Raby "probably reflects the craft's growing status and production."[24]: 54  In the two decades from roughly 1220 to 1240, the Mosul brass industry saw "rapid innovations in technique, decoration, and composition".[24]: 54  Artisans were inspired by miniature paintings produced in the Mosul area.[24]: 54 

Mosul seems to have become predominant among Muslim centers of metalwork in the early 13th century.[24]: 53  Evidence is partial and indirect - relatively few objects which directly state where they were made exist, and in the rest of cases it depends on nisbahs.[24]: 53  However, al-Mawsili is by far the most common nisbah; only two others are attested: al-Is'irdi (referring to someone from Siirt) and al-Baghdadi.[24]: 53  There are, however, some scientific instruments inlaid with silver that were made in Syria during this period, with the earliest being 1222/3 (619 AH).[24]: 53 

Instability after the death of Badr al-Din Lu'lu' in 1259, and especially the Mongol siege and capture of Mosul in July 1262, probably caused a decline in Mosul's metalworking industry.[24]: 54  There is a relative lack of known metalwork from the Jazira in the late 1200s; meanwhile, an abundance of metalwork from Mamluk Syria and Egypt is attested from this same period.[24]: 54  This doesn't necessarily mean that production in Mosul ended, though, and some extant objects from this period may have been made in Mosul.[24]: 54–5 

Literature

See also: Illuminated manuscript and Arabic miniature
Zengid guards armed with long swords and wearing the aqbiya turkiyya coat, tiraz armbands, boots and sharbush hat, at the time of the atabegate of Badr al-Din Lu'lu' in 1218-1219. Kitab al-Aghani, Mosul.[25]

The area including Syria, Jazira and Iraq saw an "explosion of figural art" from the 12th to 13th centuries, particularly in the areas of decorative art and illustrated manuscripts.[26][27] This occurred despite religious condemnations against the depiction of living creatures, on the grounds that "it implies a likeness to the creative activity of God".[26]

The origins of this new pictorial tradition are uncertain, but Arabic illustrated manuscripts such as the Maqamat al-Hariri shared many characteristics with Christian Syriac illustrated manuscripts, such as Syriac Gospels (British Library, Add. 7170).[28] This synthesis seems to point to a common pictorial tradition that existed since circa 1180 CE in the region, which was highly influenced by Byzantine art.[28][29]

The manuscript Kitâb al-Diryâq (Arabic: كتاب الدرياق, romanized: Kitāb al-diryāq, "The Book of Theriac"), or Book of anditodes of pseudo-Galen, is a medieval manuscript allegedly based on the writings of Galen ("pseudo-Galen"). It describes the use of Theriac, an ancient medicinal compound initially used as a cure for the bites of poisonous snakes. Two editions are extant, adorned with beautiful miniatures revealing of the social context at the time of their publication.[30] The earliest manuscript was published in 1198-1199 CE in Mosul or the Jazira region, and is now in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (MS. Arabe 2964).[30][31]

The Kitab al-Aghani was created in 1218-1219 in Mosul at the time of the Zengid atabegate of Badr al-Din Lu'lu' (40 years old at the time), and has several frontispieces richly illustrated with court scenes.[25]

Architecture

Citadel of Aleppo.

The Zengids are known for numerous constructions from Syria to northern Iraq. The Citadel of Aleppo was fortified by the Zengids during the Crusades. Imad ad-Din Zengi, followed by his son Nur ad-Din (ruled 1147–1174), unified Aleppo and Damascus and held back the Crusaders from their repeated assaults on the cities. In addition to his many works in both Aleppo and Damascus, Nur ad-Din rebuilt the Aleppo city walls and fortified the citadel. Arab sources report that he also made several other improvements, such as a high, brick-walled entrance ramp, a palace, and a racecourse likely covered with grass. Nur ad-Din additionally restored or rebuilt the two mosques and donated an elaborate wooden mihrab (prayer niche) to the Mosque of Abraham. Several famous crusaders were imprisoned in the citadel, among them Count of Edessa, Joscelin II, who died there, Raynald of Châtillon, and the King of Jerusalem, Baldwin II, who was held for two years.[36]

The Nur al-Din Madrasa is a funerary madrasa in Damascus, Syria. It was built in 1167 by Nūr ad-Dīn Zangī, atabeg of Syria, who is buried there. The complex includes a mosque, a madrasa, and the mausoleum of the founder. It was the first such complex to be built in Damascus.[37][38] The Nur al-Din Bimaristan is a large Muslim medieval bimaristan ("hospital") in Damascus, Syria. It was built and named after the Nur ad-Din Zangi in 1154.[39]

The Great Mosque of al-Nuri, Mosul was also built by Nur ad-Din Zangi in 1172–1173, shortly before his death.[40][41]

Christianity under the Zengids

Christianity in the Middle East continued to suffer a general decline within a context of Arabization and Islamization, as well as the conflict of the Crusades.[42] Still, Syriac Christianity remained active under the Zengids, and even went through a phase of "Syriac Renaissance" in which discriminatory rules against Christians were lifted, especially after the death of the conservative Nur al-Din Zengi in 1174.[42] Several important Christian manuscripts were created in Mosul during the late Zengid period, especially under the atabagate of Badr al-Din Lu'lu' (1211-1234), and later during his independent reign (1234-1259).[43] One of them, the Jacobite-Syrian Lectionary of the Gospels, was created at the Mar Mattai Monastery 20 kilometers northeast of the city of Mosul, c.1220 (Vatican Library, Ms. Syr. 559).[44] This Gospel, with its depiction of many military figures in armour, is considered as a useful reference of the military technologies of classical Islam during the period.[45] Another such gospel is Ms. Additional 7170, British Library, also created circa 1220 in the Mosul region.[43]

  • Miniature of a Syriac gospel from around Mosul, c. 1220 (BL Ms. 7170). Badr al-Din Lu'lu' was tolerant of Christian religion.[43]
    Miniature of a Syriac gospel from around Mosul, c. 1220 (BL Ms. 7170). Badr al-Din Lu'lu' was tolerant of Christian religion.[43]
  • Detail of f.139r, Crucifixion. Vatican Library, Ms. Syr. 559.
    Detail of f.139r, Crucifixion. Vatican Library, Ms. Syr. 559.
  • Detail of f.18r, Massacre of the Innocents. Vatican Library, Ms. Syr. 559.
    Detail of f.18r, Massacre of the Innocents. Vatican Library, Ms. Syr. 559.
  • Detail of f.29v, Beheading of John the Baptist. Vatican Library, Ms. Syr. 559.
    Detail of f.29v, Beheading of John the Baptist. Vatican Library, Ms. Syr. 559.

Zengid rulers

Zengid Atabegs and Emirs of Mosul

Further information: List of rulers of Mosul § Zengid emirs, and Rulers of Mosul
Coin of Qutb al-Din Mawdud (r. 1149-1170), son of the founder of the dynasty Zengi. Dated AH 555 (1159-1160 CE)
Coin of Nur ad-Din Arslan Shah I, mint of Mosul, depicting a classical portrait, 1197. British Museum.

Mosul was taken over by Badr al-Din Lu'lu', atabeg to Nasir ad-Din Mahmud, whom he murdered in 1234.

Zengid Emirs of Aleppo

Further information: List of rulers of Aleppo § Zengid Dynasty, and Rulers of Aleppo

Aleppo was conquered by Saladin in 1183 and ruled by Ayyubids until 1260.

Zengid Emirs of Damascus

Further information: List of rulers of Damascus § Zengid atabegs, and Rulers of Damascus

Damascus was conquered by Saladin in 1174 and ruled by Ayyubids until 1260.

Zengid Emirs of Sinjar

Further information: Sinjar § Islamic era

Sinjar was taken by the Ayyubids in 1220 and ruled by al-Ashraf Musa, Ayyubid emir of Diyar Bakr. It later came under the control of Badr al-Din Lu'lu', ruler of Mosul beginning in 1234.

Zengid Emirs of al-Jazira (in Northern Iraq)

Further information: Upper Mesopotamia § Islamic empires

In 1250, al-Jazira fell under the domination of an-Nasir Yusuf, Ayyubid emir of Aleppo.

Flag

Supposed flag of Saladin, inherited from the Zengids.[46]

The flag of Saladin (yellow, emblazed with an eagle) was apparently inherited from the Zengids.[46] The color yellow especially, remained a symbolical color for the rulers of the Ayyubids and the Mamluks.[46]

See also

References

  1. ^ Canby et al. 2016, p. 69.
  2. ^ a b c El-Azhari 2019, p. 311.
  3. ^ Bosworth 1996, p. 191.
  4. ^ a b Legitimising the Conquest of Egypt: The Frankish Campaign of 1163 Revisited. Eric Böhme. The Expansion of the Faith. Volume 14. January 1, 2022. Pages 269 - 280.
  5. ^ a b Souad, Merah, and Tahraoui Ramdane. 2018. “INSTITUTIONALIZING EDUCATION AND THE CULTURE OF LEARNING IN MEDIEVAL ISLAM: THE AYYŪBIDS (569/966 AH) (1174/1263 AD) LEARNING PRACTICES IN EGYPT AS A CASE STUDY”. Al-Shajarah: Journal of the International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC), January, 245-75.
  6. ^ a b Gençtürk, Ç. "SELAHADDİN EYYUBİ VE NUREDDİN MAHMUD ARASINDAKİ MÜNASEBETLER". Ankara Uluslararası Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 1 (2018 ): 51-61
  7. ^ a b EYYÛBÎLER. İçindekiler Tablosu. Prof. Dr. Ramazan ŞEŞEN. Mimar Sinan Üniversitesi.
  8. ^ El-Azhari 2019, p. 316.
  9. ^ El-Azhari 2019, p. 312.
  10. ^ Ayalon 1999, p. 166.
  11. ^ Irwin 1999, p. 227.
  12. ^ Hunyadi & Laszlovszky 2001, p. 28.
  13. ^ Asbridge 2012, p. 1153.
  14. ^ "Blacas ewer British Museum". www.britishmuseum.org.
  15. ^ a b c d Jiwa, Shainool (26 January 2023). The Fatimids 2: The Rule from Egypt. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 198–199. ISBN 978-0-7556-4675-3.
  16. ^ "Letter from Aymeric, Patriarch of Antioch, to Louis VII, King of France (1164)". De Re Militari. 4 March 2013.
  17. ^ Bosworth, C. E. (1 June 2019). The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 195–196. doi:10.1515/9781474464628. The rise of the Zangids halted the Artuqids' expansionist plans, and they had to become vassals of Nur al-Din. Then the Ayyubids whittled their power down further, and they lost Hisn Kayfa, Amid and Mayyafariqin to them. In the early thirteenth century, they were for a time vassals of the Rum Seljuqs and of the Khwarazm Shah Jalal al-Dln Mengiibirti. Eventually, only the Mardln line survived, with Qara Arslan submitting to the Mongol II Khan Hulegu.
  18. ^ Whelan Type II, 181-2; S&S Type 63.1; Album 1863.2
  19. ^ Humphreys 1991, p. 781
  20. ^ Humphreys, Stephen (14 October 2004). The New Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge University Press. p. 744. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521414111. Two sieges of Mosul (1182, 1185) failed, and Saladin had to be content with Izz al-Din's promise to send troops for the war against the infidels upon demand. Though reduced almost to a client-state, Mosul remained a Zengid city, due both to Izz al-Din Masud's stubborn resistance and to a near fatal illness in autumn 1185 which forced Saladin to break off his campaign. However, after twelve years of unremitting struggle, Saladin had fulfilled his ambition to reconstitute Nur al-Din's empire.
  21. ^ a b c d Patton, Douglas (1991). "Badr al-Dīn Lu'lu' and the Establishment of a mamluk Government in Mosul". Studia Islamica (74): 81. doi:10.2307/1595898. ISSN 0585-5292.
  22. ^ Pubblici, Lorenzo (2021). Mongol Caucasia. Invasions, conquest, and government of a frontier region in thirteenth-century Eurasia (1204-1295). Brill. p. 145. ISBN 978-90-04-50355-7. 1243 (...) With much astuteness, Hethum I, who did not wait for the Mongols' arrival, immediately declared himself to be the subject and vassal of the noyons of Ögedei. He entered under Mongol protection and managed to exercise his sovereignty precisely as he had done until then and paid tribute to the Mongols. A similar strategy was followed by the atabeg of Mosul, who willingly accepted Mongol protection and spared the lives of its people.
  23. ^ a b c d e Rice, D.S. (1957). "Inlaid Brasses from the Workshop of Aḥmad al-Dhakī al-Mawṣilī". Ars Orientalis. 2: 283–326. JSTOR 4629040. Retrieved 17 November 2022.
  24. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Raby, Julian (2012). "The Principle of Parsimony and the Problem of the 'Mosul School of Metalwork'". In Porter, Venetia; Rosser-Owen, Mariam (eds.). Metalwork and Material Culture in the Islamic World (PDF). Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 11–85. ISBN 978-0-85773-343-6. Retrieved 18 November 2022.
  25. ^ a b Rice, D. S. (1953). "The Aghānī Miniatures and Religious Painting in Islam". The Burlington Magazine. 95 (601): 130. ISSN 0007-6287.
  26. ^ a b George, Alain (February 2012). "Orality, Writing and the Image in the Maqamat : Arabic Illustrated Books in Context". Art History. 35 (1): 10–37. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8365.2011.00881.x. The Islamic world witnessed, in the twelfth to thirteenth centuries, an explosion of figural art. (...) The making of it is forbidden under every circumstance, because it implies a likeness to the creative activity of God
  27. ^ Snelders 2010, p. 3.
  28. ^ a b The Glory of Byzantium: Art and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era, A.D. 843-1261. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1997. pp. 384–385. ISBN 978-0-87099-777-8.
  29. ^ Snelders 2010, pp. 1–2.
  30. ^ a b Pancaroǧlu, Oya (2001). "Socializing Medicine: Illustrations of the Kitāb al-diryāq". Muqarnas. 18: 155–172. doi:10.2307/1523306. ISSN 0732-2992.
  31. ^ Snelders, Bas (2010b). Identity and Christian-Muslim Interaction: Medieval Art of the Syrian Orthodox from the Mosul Area. Peeters. pp. Extract. ISBN 978-90-429-2386-7. Mosul appears to have been one of the main centres of illustrated manuscript production in the Middle East during the late twelfth and thirteenth centuries,252 alongside other major cities such as Baghdad, Damascus, and Cairo. A volume of al-Sufi's Kitab Suwar al-Kawakib alThabita ('Treatise on the Constellations'), copied by a certain Farah ibn cAbd Allah alHabashi, was produced in Mosul in 1233. Manuscripts ascribed to the city, or to the Jazira more broadly, include two copies of the Kitab al-Diryaq ('Book of the Theriac', usually called 'Book of Antidotes'), a medical treatise on antidotes used as a remedy against snake venom. Badr al-Din Lu'lu', who is known to have commissioned several literary texts, may also have been actively engaged in sponsoring manuscript illuminations. It is commonly assumed that an originally 20-volume set of the Kitab al-Aghani ('Book of Songs') was made for Lu'lu' in the period between 1217 and 1219. Some of the frontispieces depict a ruler wearing an armband that is inscribed with his name.
  32. ^ Canby et al. 2016, p. 59.
  33. ^ Shahbazi, Shapur (30 August 2020). "CLOTHING". Encyclopaedia Iranica Online. Brill. That these patterns do not merely represent ceramic conventions is clear from the rendering of garments in fragmentary wall paintings and in illustrations from the copy of Varqa wa Golšāh already mentioned, as well as in frontispieces to the volumes of Abu'l-Faraj Eṣfahānī's Ketāb al-aḡānī dated 614-16/1217-19 and to two copies of Ketāb al-deryāq (Book of antidotes) by Pseudo-Galen, dated 596/1199 and ascribed to the second quarter of the 7th/13th century respectively (Survey of Persian Art V, pl. 554A-B; Ateş, pls. 1/3, 6/16, 18; D. S. Rice, 1953, figs. 14-19; Ettinghausen, 1962, pp. 65, 85, 91). The last three manuscripts, all of them attributed to northern Mesopotamia, show that the stiff coat with diagonal closing and arm bands was also worn in that region from the end of the 6th/12th century.
  34. ^ Shahbazi, Shapur (30 August 2020). "CLOTHING". Encyclopaedia Iranica Online. Brill. Nevertheless, the most distinctive feature of late Saljuq and post-Saljuq male dress was the popularity of patterned textiles for these garments. (...) That these patterns do not merely represent ceramic conventions is clear from the rendering of garments in fragmentary wall paintings and in illustrations from the copy of Varqa wa Golšāh already mentioned, as well as in frontispieces to the volumes of Abu'l-Faraj Eṣfahānī's Ketāb al-aḡānī dated 614-16/1217-19 and to two copies of Ketāb al-deryāq (Book of antidotes) by Pseudo-Galen, dated 596/1199 and ascribed to the second quarter of the 7th/13th century respectively (Survey of Persian Art V, pl. 554A-B; Ateş, pls. 1/3, 6/16, 18; D. S. Rice, 1953, figs. 14-19; Ettinghausen, 1962, pp. 65, 85, 91). The last three manuscripts, all of them attributed to northern Mesopotamia, show that the stiff coat with diagonal closing and arm bands was also worn in that region from the end of the 6th/12th century.
  35. ^ Contadini, Anna (2012). A world of beasts: a thirteenth-century illustrated Arabic book on animals (the Kitāb Na't al-Ḥayawān) in the Ibn Bakhtīshū' tradition. Leiden Boston: Brill. p. 127, Fig.65 b. ISBN 978-90-04-20100-2. P.126: "Official" Turkish figures wear a standard combination of a sharbūsh, a three-quarters length robe, and boots. Arab figures, in contrast, have different headgear (usually a turban), a robe that is either full-length or, if three-quarters length, has baggy trousers below, and they usually wear flat shoes or (...) go barefoot (...) P.127: Reference has already been made to the combination of boots and sharbūsh as markers of official status (...) the combination is standard, even being reflected in thirteenth-century Coptic paintings, and serves to distinguish, in Grabar's formulation, the world of the Turkish ruler and that of the Arab. (...) The type worn by the official figures in the 1237 Maqāmāt, depicted, for example, on fol. 59r,67 consists of a gold cap surmounted by a little round top and with fur trimming creating a triangular area at the front which either shows the gold cap or is a separate plaque. A particular imposing example in this manuscript is the massive sharbūsh with much more fur than usual that is worn by the princely official on the right frontispiece on fol. 1v. (...) These are of yet another type and are identical to those on the official on the left holding a spear in the painting of the "Purple Betony" in the 1224 Dioscorides (Fig. 65b)
  36. ^ Gonella 2005, pp. 14–19.
  37. ^ "Madrasa al-Nuriyya al-Kubra (Damascus)". Archnet. Retrieved 2020-11-19.
  38. ^ "Madrasa Nuriya al-Kubra". Madain Project. Retrieved 1 May 2019.
  39. ^ Allen, Terry. Classical Revival. p. 57ff.
  40. ^ "Iconic Grand al-Nuri mosque in Iraq's Mosul 'blown up'". Al Jazeera. 21 June 2017. Retrieved 21 June 2017.
  41. ^ "Battle for Mosul: IS 'blows up' al-Nuri mosque". BBC. 21 June 2017. Retrieved 21 June 2017.
  42. ^ a b Snelder, B. (2010). Identity and Christian-Muslim interaction : medieval art of the Syrian Orthodox from the Mosul area. Leiden University. p. Chapter 2. "5 A change for the better came with the death of Nur al-Din Zangi in 1174. In the case of Mosul, the conservative regime established there by Nur al-Din quickly collapsed and was eventually replaced by a more liberal and tolerant administration, which revoked the discriminatory measures against Christians." (...) "Despite the progressing Arabization and Islamization of all levels of Middle Eastern society, and the internal struggles for ecclesiastical power outlined above, the Syrian Orthodox Church, as an ecclesiastical organization, continued to grow under Muslim rule" (...) "Under Badr al-Din Lu'lu' (1211-1259), who was a remarkably tolerant and even-handed ruler, the local Christians regained much of their confidence and were even able to partake fully in what in hindsight proved to be Mosul's golden age. The same holds true for the Eastern Christian communities living in Syria under either Frankish or Ayyubid rule, especially during the relatively peaceful period which started around 1204, when a truce was signed between the Franks and the Ayyubids, and which lasted to the Mongol invasion of 1260".
  43. ^ a b c Snelders, Bas (2010). Identity and Christian-Muslim Interaction: Medieval Art of the Syrian Orthodox from the Mosul Area. Peeters. pp. Extract. ISBN 978-90-429-2386-7. Patton argues that in addition to Badr al-Din Lu'lu''s ordering and sponsoring the foundation of numerous social and religious institutions in Mosul, his energetic patronage of the arts was probably part of a conscious policy aimed at securing the loyalty of the city's population and ensuring that they would not turn their backs on him in favour of one of his opponents. This egalitarian treatment of the Muslim Sunnis and Shiis should certainly beseen in this light, but also his comparatively tolerant attitude towards Mosul's large Christian community. As Patton argues, 'Lu'lu''s skill at maintaining the support of all groups while especially favouring none is a remarkable achievement which explains not only the duration of his reign, but probably the great efflorescence of the arts in his reign as well. After the death of Badr al-Din Lu'lu' in 1259, however, the prosperous period and cultural bloom in the Mosul area soon came to an end.
  44. ^ Eastmond, Antony (2017). Tamta's World: The Life and Encounters of a Medieval Noblewoman from the Middle East to Mongolia. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781316711774. ISBN 9781316711774.
  45. ^ Nicolle, David (2008). Military technology of classical Islam. Edinbourg University Press. p. Vol.3, Figures 306 (A-F).
  46. ^ a b c Hathaway, Jane (1 February 2012). A Tale of Two Factions: Myth, Memory, and Identity in Ottoman Egypt and Yemen. State University of New York Press. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-7914-8610-8. The Ayyubids and Mamluks, who succeeded the Fatimids in Egypt and Syria, retained the association of yellow with the ruler. Salah al-Din (Saladin), the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, carried a yellow flag emblazoned with an eagle, supposedly inherited from the Zangid dynasty, whose protégé he had been. Yellow was likewise the Mamluk sultan's official color, and Mamluk sultanic banners were yellow.

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source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zengid_dynasty&diff=prev&oldid=1209023652